Yakuza and the Japanese Society - 1123 Words

Yakuza and Japanese society Essay building plan Sources: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=bOazu1_NAZghttp://www.youtube.com/watch?v=bwvvjCXFv_Ihttp://www.neatorama.com/2011/03/20/the-yakuza-is-quietly-helping-earthquake-victims-in-japan/http://www.tumblr.com/tagged/ninkyodohttp://www.guardian.co.uk/world/2012/jan/05/japanese-yakuza-gangs-face-crackdown | 1. Introduction Introduction of the main question: What are the possible consequences of the implementation of the law? 2. Pros of having Yakuza What have they done in the past for society? What do they do for society today? How does the Japanese society see the Yakuza? The Yakuza code of honor. 3. Cons of having Yakuza * Why are the Yakuza a problem? Who†¦show more content†¦That means that normal people who have nothing to do with crime but deal with a dummy company of a Yakuza-group might get in trouble with the police. The question is, what are the possible consequences of such a law on Japanese society, and is it really necessary? The Yakuza operate on different principles than other gangs and their history is that of poverty and social strife. The Yakuza themselves claim that their origin goes as far back as the 17th century, but the modern Yakuza’s origins begin in the late 19th and early 20th century. Toyama Mitsuru was the son of a samurai and he founded the Genyosha Society. Later Toyama’s top aide Ryohei founded the Amur River Society. They began to control construction labor and dockside labor, later adding prostitution, liquor, gambling and entertainment. Yakuza are not all bad, they are not like the Italian mafia. During the Kobe earthquake of 1995, the Yakuza were one of the first to start the reconstruction efforts. With their ties to construction companies it wasn’t a giant leap for them. They did make millions in profit from police estimates but they helped rebuild the city. During the 2011 earthquake, the Yakuza were among the first at the scene offering help and relief supplies. They quickly mobilized fleets of trucks to transport goods from Kobe and Tokyo to the affected areas. This behavior is not in conflict with the wayShow MoreRelatedYakuza and the Japanese Society1111 Words   |  5 PagesYakuza and Japanese society Essay building plan Sources: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=bOazu1_NAZghttp://www.youtube.com/watch?v=bwvvjCXFv_Ihttp://www.neatorama.com/2011/03/20/the-yakuza-is-quietly-helping-earthquake-victims-in-japan/http://www.tumblr.com/tagged/ninkyodohttp://www.guardian.co.uk/world/2012/jan/05/japanese-yakuza-gangs-face-crackdown | 1. Introduction Introduction of the main question: What are the possible consequences of the implementation of the law? 2. Pros of havingRead MoreMerits of Yakuzas1104 Words   |  5 Pagesï » ¿The yakuza - a family of organized crime that is complicated, hierarchical, underground and extremely influential in both the Private and the Public sphere, is unique to Japan. It is common knowledge that there exists an underworld in every country. The Yakuza, the significant part of Japan’s underworld however carries along unique characteristics, which makes it arguably a crucial part of what makes up the Japanese society. This essay seeks to substantiate the claim that Yakuzas, despite its definitionRead MoreYakuza1710 Words   |  7 Pagesroutes in Latin America while the Sicilian Mafia have set up a large protection racketing system throughout Italy. The Yakuza have established themselves in Japan and are considered to be more sophisticated than the various criminal organizations in the world because of their colorful history. The Yakuza’s origins can be traced back to the seventeenth cent ury; however, many Yakuza members have their own version of their origin. They are notoriously known for their strict codes of conduct, which emphasizesRead MoreAn Analysis Of Yakuzaian History, Beliefs, And Traditions1384 Words   |  6 Pagesin the Edo or Tokugawa eras. The Azuchi-Moyama was apparently a period where unification ceased in the year 1603, and the Tokugawa Shogunate gained control over the Japanese government bringing with it two hundred fifty years of peace. It was towards the middle of this era that three early versions of what today we know as the Yakuza surfaced: the shishi, the tekiya, and lastly the bakuto. It was the shishi that were commonly referred to as the strong arm protectors of the early modern state ofRead MoreBecoming A Motorcycle Gang Of Course1299 Words   |  6 Pagesyou do if you were an angsty adolescent teenager in a post world war time when the traditional view of society was to stay inside and get smart and all you wanted to do was to go against the traditional views of society? Join a motorcycle gang of course. This was the popular choice of lower class teenagers in 20th century Japan. Bosozoku started in the post World War II period (Tofugu). When Japanese kamikaze pilots, suicide bombers, who had no intention of returning from the war, returned to JapanRead MoreThe Law Enforcement Of Japan2852 Words   |  12 Pagesenforcement in Japan as a whole. This paper will highlight the following: provide an analysis of the history, structure and organization of the Japanese system, the education and training requirements, issues being encountered regarding law enforcement, and the Japanese system that is being used currently. History of Law Enforcement in Japan The Japanese law enforcement system became to be one of the most idolized police systems used today. Japan’s unique modern police system commenced in 1874,Read MoreEssay about Organized Crime Around the World1874 Words   |  8 Pagesorganized crime they think of the Italian mob and the Russian mafia. They are the ones that they see in movies and on television, and the ones that they hear about the most. However, they were created a couple centuries after their Asian counterparts, the Yakuza in Japan, and the Triads in China. These Asian syndicates were founded in the sixteenth and seventeenth century and consisted of merchants and other people in what was basically the middle class. They were just groups of poorer people who were justRead MoreThe Convergence Of Old Media With New Media1603 Words   |  7 Pagesdisease, NAS, and was invaluable to a great many people, especially to Pharmakom, the company from whom the data was stolen and who didn t want the cure leaked out. Johnny s clients, whistle-blowers and ex-employees by Pharmakom, were massacred by the Yakuza who were hired by Pharmakom to retrieve the data, including Johnny s head, preserved so as not to disrupt the data. Johnny s mission became trying to get the data out of his head safely and uncorrupted while keeping his head attached to his shouldersRead MoreAn Analysis of Asian Gangs Essay1714 Words   |  7 Pagespopulation is continuously growing though, and with that comes the urban gangs. Where do they originate, and just how pervasive are they in our society? Its a new area of study that seemed more interesting to me than the usual American gangs. First lets focus on the fact that gang related crime is one of the most dangerous challenges facing society and law enforcement today. They are younger, more brutal, unafraid of consequences and becoming increasingly more vicious. Gang members work togetherRead More Todays Mafia Essays1186 Words   |  5 Pagesthe Chinese Triads, the Japanese Yakuza, and the Vietnamese Gangs, whom all base their sect along the same lines of the New York Mafia families. (Worsnop 270) The Chinese Triads are secret societies which were formed to overthrow the Ching Dynasty (Chinese government) in the early 1900s. (270) It was soon reintroduced again in the 1990s. Some of the crimes related to the Chinese include extortion, gambling, and smuggling of narcotics and aliens. (270) The Japanese Yakuza was formed after WWII as

Res 811 Synthesis Paper - 1363 Words

RES 811 Synthesis Paper To Buy this Class Copy paste below link in your Brower http://homeworkregency.com/downloads/res-811-synthesis-paper/ Or Visit Our Website Visit : http://www.homeworkregency.com Email Us : homeworkregency@gmail.com RES 811 Synthesis Paper Synthesis is the act of creating something new from multiple existing entities. Synthesis of research, then, is creating a new idea from existing ideas. Synthesis of research is not a single innate skill. Rather, it is a process learned through time and practice. In this assignment, you will engage in the last part of the synthesis process. General Requirements: Use the following information to ensure successful completion of the assignment: †¢ Refer to the†¦show more content†¦Please review the rubric prior to beginning the assignment to become familiar with the expectations for successful completion. †¢ Doctoral learners are required to use APA style for their writing assignments. The APA Style Guide is located in the Student Success Center. †¢ You are required to submit this assignment to Turnitin. Refer to the directions in the Student Success Center. Directions: Locate the annotated bibliography and outline you created in the Module 5 assignment. Using the outline you developed, the information from the annotated bibliography, and the feedback provided by your instructor, write a paper (750-1,000 words) that synthesizes all three of the articles. Do that by including the following: 1. A statement of common themes addressed in each of the three articles. 2. A statement of the conclusions that can be drawn when the articles are taken together as a single entity. What is the overall message of the group of articles? Synthesis Paper: Leadership 70.0 %Content 25.0 %Statement of Common Themes A statement of common themes is either missing or not evident to the reader. A statement of common themes is present, but inaccurate or illogical. A statement of common themes is presented, but is cursory and lacking in depth. A statement of common themes is present and thorough. A statement of common themes isShow MoreRelatedWeek 7 Leadership Paper1424 Words   |  6 Pagesï » ¿ Synthesis Paper: Leadership RES -811 April 22, 2015 Leadership Paper This paper will create a dialogue concerning the following articles and synthesis them to generate a discussion of the common themes that run throughout them, as well as understanding the conclusion of all three articles when taken as one entity. Article 1: Fearless Dominance and the U.S. Presidency: Implications of PsychopathicPersonality Traits for Successful and Unsuccessful Political Leadership by S.O. LilienfeldRead MoreA Critique of Porter’s Cost Leadership and Differentiation Strategies10186 Words   |  41 PagesYork at Buffalo Professor Emeritus College of Business Northern Kentucky University Highland Heights, KY 41099 (USA) 7539, Tiki Av. Cincinnati, OH 45243 USA Tel: (513) 984-1032 [Home] Fax: (513) 984-1032 E-Mail: datta@nku.edu A paper accepted for presentation at the 9th Oxford Business Economics Conference to be held in Oxford, England, June 22-24. Table of Contents A Critique of Porter’s Cost Leadership and Differentiation Strategies 4 ABSTRACT 4 Key Words 4 INTRODUCTIONRead MoreDrivers of Hospitality Industry Employees Job Satisfaction, Organizational Commitment, and Job Performance11346 Words   |  46 PagesAfrican Journal of Business Management Vol. 4(18), pp. 4118-4134, 18 December, 2010 Available online at http://www.academicjournals.org/AJBM ISSN 1993-8233  ©2010 Academic Journals Full Length Research Paper Drivers of hospitality industry employees’ job satisfaction, organizational commitment and job performance Ming-Chun Tsai1, Ching-Chan Cheng2* and Ya-Yuan Chang3 Department of Business Administration, Chung Hua University, No. 707, Sec.2, WuFu Road, Hsinchu City, Taiwan 300, Republic of ChinaRead MoreContingency Approach11397 Words   |  46 Pagesorganisation contexts [32,33,34,35]. Many contingency approaches within organisation theory emphasise moderating effects of environmental characteristics on the relationship between organisation structure and effectiveness [24,36,29,27,3,37,5]. In a synthesis of this work, Weitz and Anderson[32] developed a model for the design of the marketing function. This model was based on the contingency perspective that the structure of the marketing function depends on the environmental situation. Consistent withRead MoreDental Question Bank33485 Words   |  134 Pagesof aspirin might show increased post operative bleeding because aspirin inhibits** A. B. C. D. E. Synthesis of thromboxane A2 and prevents platelet aggregation Synthesis of prostacyclin and prevents platelet aggregation Synthesis of prostagl andin and prevents production of blood platelets Thrombin and prevents formation of the fibrin network Increase the absorption of vitamin K and prevents synthesis of blood clotting factors 50. A patient who recently had a calculus removed from the kidney presentedRead MoreProject Managment Case Studies214937 Words   |  860 PagesSTUDIES, SECOND EDITION - PROJECT MANAGEMENT CASE STUDIES, SECOND EDITION HAROLD KERZNER, Ph.D. Division of Business Administration Baldwin-Wallace College Berea, Ohio John Wiley Sons, Inc. This book is printed on acid-free paper. @ Copyright O 2006 by John Wiley Sons, Inc. All rights reserved. Published by John Wiley Sons, Inc., Hoboken, New Jersey Published simultaneously in Canada No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmittedRead MoreThe Effects of Advertising on Children33281 Words   |  134 Pagesreport also found that television advertising does have an impact on children’s food preferences, but that it is not solely responsible, finding that other factors also affect preferences. 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Individual Adaptations Versus Population Evolution

One common misconception about evolution is the idea that individuals can evolve, but they can only accumulate adaptations that help them survive in an environment. While it is possible for these individuals in a species to mutate and have changed made to their  DNA, evolution is a term specifically defined by the change in DNA of the majority of a population. In other words, mutations or adaptations do not equal evolution. There are no species alive today that have individuals that live long enough to see all of the evolution happen to its species—a new species may diverge from an existing species’ lineage, but this was a build up of new traits over a long period of time and did not happen instantaneously. So if individuals cannot evolve on their own, how then does evolution occur? Populations evolve through a process known as natural selection which allows individuals with beneficial traits for survival to breeding with other individuals who share those traits, eventually leading to offspring who only exhibit those superior traits. Understanding Populations, Evolution, and Natural Selection In order to understand why individual mutations and adaptations are not in and of themselves evolutionary, its important to first understand the core concepts behind evolution and population studies.  Ã‚   Evolution is defined as a change in the inheritable characteristics of a population of several successive generations while a population is defined as a group of individuals within a single species that live in the same area and can interbreed. Populations of individuals in the same species have a collective gene pool in which all future offspring will draw their genes from, which allows natural selection to work on the population and determine which individuals are more â€Å"fit† for their environments. The aim is to increase those favorable traits in the gene pool while weeding out the ones that not favorable; natural selection cannot work on a single individual because there are not competing traits in the individual to choose between. Therefore, only populations can evolve using the mechanism of natural selection. Individual Adaptations as a Catalyst for Evolution This isnt to say that these individual adaptations do not play a role in the process of evolution within a population—in fact, mutations that benefit certain individuals may result in that individual being more desirable for mating, increasing the likelihood of that particular beneficial genetic trait in the collective gene pool of the population. Over the course of several generations, this original mutation could affect the entire population, eventually resulting in offspring only being born with this beneficial adaptation that one individual in the population had out of some fluke of the animals conception and birth. For instance, if a new city was built on the edge of the natural habitat of monkeys that had never been exposed to human life and one individual in that population of monkeys were to mutate to be less afraid of human interaction and could therefore interact with the human population and perhaps get some free food, that monkey would become more desirable as a mate and would pass those docile genes onto its offspring. Eventually, the offspring of that monkey and that monkeys offspring would overwhelm the population of formerly feral monkeys, creating a new population that had evolved to be more docile and trusting of their new human neighbors.

The Hiroshima Attack On September 6th Failed - 1458 Words

commit itself to a lengthy war. Truman estimated a potential loss of 500,000 lives; he saw the bombs will completely destroy Japan s power to create war...† (Harry S. Truman, 1945) The Hiroshima attack on August 6th failed to be decisive: Japan did not surrender, nor did it seemed pressured by the nuclear attack, according to the U.S. (Harry S. Truman, 1945) Nagasaki was considered vital, because it was a major harbour, a densely populated area and residential to a lucrative trade industry, namely, Mitsubishi manufacturing company’s; increasing the bomb s harmful potential. (Ibiblio.org, 2015) As a city, it was established and was significant as a centre of religious and cultural heritage; indicating that Nagasaki was chosen as a†¦show more content†¦(Hasegawa, 2005) As Hiroshima had not provoked surrender, U.S. politicians doubted that a second attack would be able to end the war - and anticipated that a minimum of a 3rd would be necessary before launching the invasion on November 1. At most, it had been hoped that the war would be shortened by many months. Whereas the bomb s scientific success was praised immediately, the role of the weapon in ending the war was stressed only after Japan had given in. Before this, the U.S war cabinet similarly equated the bomb to previous firebombing campaigns. (Weblog.delacour.net, 20 02) The Soviet declaration of war on Japan exerted even more pressure on Japan, triggering even the emperor to urge the government to just accept the Potsdam Declaration and surrender. Its involvement meant that Japan might be fighting a two-front war as the Soviets had already settled in Japanese-held Manchuria, and had orders to attack Japan s northern and southern isles. This influenced Japan s unconditional surrender as no strategy remained and it may not hope for the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics to mediate for an appropriate peace. On August 15, Japan surrendered unconditionally based on all the Potsdam terms. C. Evaluation of source: Source A - Source B: The Decision to Use the Atomic Bomb by Henry Lewis Stimson Written by Stimson, who was secretary of war in

Chapter Summary of Guns Germs and Steel Free Essays

1. How humans came into existence was talked about along with the major advances in the world’s development. It is proven that humans did evolve from monkeys in Africa. We will write a custom essay sample on Chapter Summary of Guns Germs and Steel or any similar topic only for you Order Now There is some arguments around if there were pre-Clovis people or not, but James Diamond says evidence would’ve been found by now. 2. The Maori and Moriori are the descendants of the Polynesians. Because they had a larger and denser population, the Maori people were more technologically advanced with more complex societies and technology. Smaller populations only make things when there is an actual need. 3. There was a big population shift in North America when the Europeans colonized America and almost eliminated the Native American population. The Spanish conquistadors were Christians, who used God as their reasoning behind actions. So, when the Incan emperor and heir died of small pox, the Spanish used their communication skills to easily defeat the Incas. 4. The production of food is very important to a successful society, because food means more people. Domesticating animals also comes with its benefits such as: milk, meat, tools, labor, and transportation. For example horses were used in warfare. 5. There was a discussion revolving around why well off areas didn’t do food production. The earliest places that did adopt food productions were: Iraq, Mexico, and the Andes. 6. Ancient farming often had many diseases associated with it along with malnourishment and younger deaths. Usually people would do a combination of hunter gathering and farming. Mainly the only people who would not survive are the ones who could not farm because of geographical reasons. 7. Wild plants became crops through genetic modifications. For the purpose of reproduction, tasty plants had bitter seeds, so animals wouldn’t eat the seeds. 8. This chapter discussed why the Fertile Crescent thrived as well as it did. Three possible answers could be: the climate, self-pollination, and the ancestor crops. The beginning of the chapter also talks a lot about why some locations used agriculture and some did not. There were many theories to this question. 9. The definition of a domesticated animal is: an animal selectively bred in captivity and thereby modified from its wild ancestors, for use by humans who control the animal’s breeding and food supply. Elephants and zebras are both capable of being domesticated, but no one has been successful at it yet. The most successfully domesticated animals have all come from Eurasia. 10. The axis and Earth’s rotation have an affect on the continent. Trade tends to move farther east and west, because they share the same day length, diseases, seasons, and climate. 11. Germs and infections had a huge affect on crops and animals. People develop immunity to certain diseases. Sometimes though infections can spread very slowly, which makes it act more effectively because no one discovers it. 12. The ability to write and its importance was discussed in this chapter. A societies comprehension is shown through its writing. A writing system has three basic parts: a sound, syllable, and word. The basic structures for many writing systems were based off The Sumerians and the Mesoamerican people. 13. Diamond says that there are a few parts for an invention to be used and wanted. It has to have an economic advantage and match the interest of society. It also must have social significance. 14. This chapter talks about the organization of a society. There are many levels of organization. The levels are: a band, tribe, chiefdom, state, and kleptocrat. The chapter discusses what each one was and talks about the roles of each one along with its strengths and weaknesses. 15. Even though Australia had some of the best technology, it didn’t ever attack Europe. Australia was known to isolate itself along with New Guinea. New Guinea was geographically isolated and progressed slowly for a few reasons. For example: their crops didn’t have significant protein and there were no diseases to keep intruders out. 16. China stayed very isolated and unified politically. Language was also discussed. Language changes and evolves into different languages, because when people invade the area they bring their own words and phrases that then become part of the local language. 17. A language that did not change was Polynesia’s. This has an unknown reason why. The Austronesians did have the largest population expansion in the last 6000 years. They attacked New Guinea and killed the majority of the New Guineans. 18. Eurasia did not successfully take over all the Native Americans. The Eurasians were use to working with domesticated animals, but there were not many domesticated animals there. Even though they couldn’t really use the animals, with the use of guns, germs, and steel the Eurasians had a huge advantage over the Native Americans. 19. Africa is predominately black for the reason that the black people owned the largest area. The black farmers attacked the Pygmy homeland and took their language. They also did this to the Khoisans. Africa didn’t domesticate animals until much later. How to cite Chapter Summary of Guns Germs and Steel, Papers

Acute Inflammation Essay Example For Students

Acute Inflammation Essay Acute Inflammation The survival of all organisms requires that they eliminate foreign invaders, such as infectious pathogens, and damaged tissues. These functions are mediated by a complex host response called inflammation. Definition of inflammation Inflammation is fundamentally a protective response, the ultimate goal of which is to rid the organism of both the initial cause of cell injury (e. g. , microbes, toxins) and the consequences of such injury (e. g. , necrotic cells and tissues) The process of inflammation is usually described by the suffix â€Å"itis† The components of the inflammatory reaction that destroy and eliminate microbes and dead tissues are capable of also injuring normal tissues. Therefore, injury may accompany entirely normal, beneficial inflammatory reactions, and the pathology may even become the dominant feature if the reaction is very strong (e. g. , when the infection is severe), prolonged (e. g. , when the eliciting agent resists eradication), or inappropriate (e. g. , when it is directed against self-antigens in autoimmune diseases. r against usually harmless environmental antigens in allergic disorders). Some of the most vexing diseases of humans are disorders in which the pathophysiologic basis is inappropriate, often chronic, inflammation. This is why the process of inflammation is fundamental to virtually all of clinical medicine. ] ACUTE INFLAMMATION Acute inflammatory reactions are triggered by a variety of stimuli: †¢ Infections (bacterial, viral, parasitic) and microbial toxins †¢ Trauma (blunt and penetrating) †¢ Physical and chemical agents (thermal injury, e. . , burns or frostbite; irradiation; some environmental chemicals) †¢ Tissue necrosis (from any cause) †¢ Foreign bodies (splinters, dirt, sutures) †¢ Immune reactions (also called hypersensitivity reactions Cardinal signs of inflammation Celsus, a Roman writer of the first century AD, first listed the four cardinal signs of in flammation Rubor, Calor, Dolor, Tumour Functio laesa Rubor- redness Calor – heat (Increased blood flow can be visualized as redness (rubor) and felt as heat (calor) Tumor – swelling (due to edema) Dolor pain The fourth cardinal sign of inflammation is pain (dolor). This is the result of increased pressure in the interstitium due to edema. Pain fibers are stimulated through pressure receptors but also may be stimulated by the direct effects of bradykinin, a plasma protease end product of the kinin system A fifth clinical sign, Functio laesa- loss of function was later added by Virchow. Acute inflammation has two major components: Vascular events The 2 major vascular changes are: 1) Alterations in vascular caliber that lead to an increase in blood flow (vasodilatation) (2) Structural changes in the microvasculature that permits plasma proteins and leukocytes to leave the circulation (Increased Vascular Permeability) Cellular events 1. Leukocyte extravasation 2. Chemotaxis 3. Phagocytosis Vascular events Vascular changes play an important role in acute inflammation. Normally, plasma proteins and circulating cells are sequestered inside the vessels and move in the direction of fl ow. laminar flow) In inflammation, the blood vessels undergo a series of changes to maximize the movement of plasma proteins and circulating cells, out of the circulation and into the site of injury. The 2 major vascular changes are: 1. Changes in vascular flow and caliber (vasodilatation) †¢ Vasodilation is one of the earliest manifestations of acute inflammation. Sometimes, it follows a transient constriction of arterioles, lasting a few seconds. †¢ Vasodilation first involves the arterioles and then results in opening of new capillary beds in the area. Thus comes about increased blood flow, which is the cause of the heat and the redness. †¢ Vasodilation is induced by the action of several mediators, notably histamine and nitric oxide, on vascular smooth muscle. Histamine causes dilation of arterioles and contraction of endothelial cells in the venule 2. Increased Vascular Permeability (Vascular Leakage) Hallmark of acute inflammation is increased vascular permeability leading to the escape of a protein-rich fluid (exudate) into the extravascular tissue. Alterations in the anatomy and function of the microcirculation are among the earliest responses to tissue injury and may promote fluid accumulation in tissues- â€Å"OEDEMA† Formation of transudates and exudates. | |A, Normal hydrostatic pressure (blue arrows) is about 32 mm Hg at the arterial end of a capillary bed and 12 mm Hg at the venous | |end; the mean colloid osmotic pressure of tissues is approximately 25 mm Hg (green arrows), which is equal to the mean capil lary | |pressure. Therefore, the net flow of fluid across the vascular bed is almost nil. | |B, A transudate is formed when fluid leaks out because of increased hydrostatic pressure or decreased osmotic pressure. |C, An exudate is formed in inflammation | The loss of fluid results in concentration of red cells in small vessels and increased viscosity of the blood, reflected by the presence of dilated small vessels packed with red cells and slower blood flow; a condition termed as stasis. As stasis develops, leukocytes, primarily neutrophils, accumulate along the vascular endothelium, stick to the endothelium and eventually escape into the interstitial tissue via the vascular wall. Normal fluid exchange and microvascular permeability are critically dependent on an intact endothelium. How then does the endothelium become leaky in acute inflammation? Following mechanisms have been proposed: 1. Gaps due to endothelial contraction Endothelial cell contraction leads to intercellular gaps in venules. It is the most common form of increased vascular permeability and is elicited by histamine, bradykinin, leukotrienes and many other classes of chemical mediators. Its action is fast and short lived. 2. Direct Injury Direct endothelial injury results in vascular leakage by causing endothelial cell necrosis and detachment. This effect is usually seen after severe injuries like burns, toxins and chemicals. Venules, arterioles, and capillaries can all be affected depending on site of injury. Its action is fast and may be long lived (hours to days). 3. Leukocyte-dependent injury Leukocyte dependant endothelial injury usually happens in venules and pulmonary capillaries, the vascular sites where leukocytes can adhere to the endothelium. This is a late response and is long lived. 4. Increased transcytosis Increased transcytosis also augments venular permeability, especially after exposure to vascular endothelium derived growth factor. This occurs in venules. 5. New blood vessel formation New blood vessel formation at sites of angiogenesis also increases vascular permeability. This persists till intercellular junctions form. Cellular Events The next requirement for the inflammatory response is to get the inflammatory cells (leukocytes) to the site of injury. Vascular dilatation increases the volume of blood to the tissue site but also changes the flow characteristics within the vessel. The cells are normally contained in the central or axial part of the blood column. Dilatation increases cross sectional area of the vessel and decreases the net flow rate per unit area. This causes cells to fall out of the central region of the vessel; they begin to tumble along the epithelial surface. Sequence of cellular events in journey of leukocytes from vessel lumen to interstitial tissue is divided to 3 phases, in the lumen, diapedesis, and migration in interstitial tissue towards chemotactic stimulus. A: In the lumen: B: Diapedesis The next step is migration of cells through the endothelium, called diapedesis . Therefore the process of transmigration across the endothelium, also known as diapedesis which happens after adhesion Diapedesis occurs predominantly in the venules. PECAM-1 (platelet endothelial cell adhesion molecule-1, CD31) in intercellular junctions of endothelium is involved in the migration of leukocyte towards site of infection. Leukocytes pierce the basement membrane by secreting collagenases, insert pseudopods into the junction between endothelial cells and then squeeze through interendothelial junction. In extravascular connective tissue, leukocytes adhere to extracellular matrix by ? 1 and CD44. Eventually they traverse the basement membrane and escape into extravascular space. Leukocyte adhesion and transmigration is regulated by chemical mediators and binding of complementary adhesion molecules on leukocytes and endothelial surfaces. The adhesion receptors involved belongs to 4 families: ) selectins b) immunoglobulin super family c) integrins d) mucin like glycoprotein a) Selectins are proteins which function in the adhesion of leukocytes to endothelial cells. P-selectin (CD62P) present in platelets and endothelium (Wiebel-Palade bodies) mediates binding of neutrophil, lymphocyte, and monocytes. L-selectin (CD62L) -which are expressed on most leukocyte types, serve as homing receptors for lymphocytes to enter lymph nodes. It also serves to bind neutrophil to endothelial cells t sites of inflammation. E-selectin (CD62E) expressed on endothelium mediates homing of effector and memory T-cells to peripheral sites of inflammation, particularly the skin. b) Immunoglobulin superfamily includes 2 endothelial adhesion molecules: a) ICAM-1 (intracellular adhesion molecules 1) b) VCAM-1 (vascular cell adhesion molecule 1) They both serve as ligands for integrins found on leukocyte c) Integrins are transmembrane heterodimeric glycoproteins that promote cell-cell, or cell-matrix interactions. Integrins are expressed on many cell types. 2 integrins, LFA-1 and Mac-1 bind to ICAM-1. ?1 integrins, VLA-4 binds to VCAM-4 d) Mucin like glycoproteins is found in extracellular matrix and on cell surface. For example heparan sulphate serves for ligand for leukocyte adhesion molecule CD44. Chemotaxis After extravasation, leukocytes emigrate in tissue towards site of injury in a process called chemotaxis. It’s defined as locomotion along a chemical gradient. Both exogenous and endogenous substanc es can act as chemo attractants a) Exogenous – components of bacterial products. ) Endogenous – components of complement system, C5a – products of lipoxygenase pathway, leukotriens B4 – Cytokines like IL-8 All the chemotactic agents bind to 7-transmembrane G-protein coupled receptors on leukocyte surface. v Signals initiated from these receptors result on recruitment of G-protein and activation of several effector molecules, phospholipase C, phophonositol-3-kinase, and protein tyrosine kinase. v PLC? and phophonositol-3-kinase act on membrane inositol phospholipids to generate lipid 2nd messenger that increases cytosolic calcium and activates small GTPases. GTPases cause polymerization of actin, leading to increased amount of polymerized actin at leading edges of the cell. Leukocyte moves by extending filopodia that pull the back of the cell to the direction of extension. (3)Phagocytosis Leukocytes ingest offending agents, kill bacteria and other microb es, and get rid of necrotic tissue and foreign substances. Phagocytosis involves three distinct but interrelated steps †¢ (1) recognition and attachment of the particle to be ingested by the leukocyte (2) its engulfment, with subsequent formation of a phagocytic vacuole †¢ (3) killing or degradation of the ingested material (a) Recognition and attachment of the particle to be ingested by the leukocyte. Phagocytosis of microbes and dead cells is initiated by recognition of the particles by receptors expressed on the leukocyte surface. (1)Mannose receptors (2) Scavenger receptors are two important receptors that function to bind and ingest microbes. The mannose receptor is a macrophage lectin that binds terminal mannose and fucose residues of glycoproteins and glycolipids. These sugars are typically part of molecules found on microbial cell walls, whereas mammalian glycoproteins and glycolipids contain terminal sialic acid or N-acetylgalactosamine. Therefore, the macrophage mannose receptors recognize microbes and not host cells †¢ The process of coating a particle, such as a microbe, to target it for phagocytosis is called opsonization †¢ The efficiency of phagocytosis is greatly enhanced when microbes are opsonized by specific proteins (opsonins) for which the phagocytes express high-affinity receptors Major opsonins are IgG antibodies †¢ C3b breakdown product of complement, †¢ Certain plasma lectins, notably MBL (mannose binding lectin ) (b)Engulfment with subsequent formation of a phagocytic vacuole †¢ During engulfment, extensions of the cytoplasm (pseudopods) flow around the particle to be engulfed, †¢ Eventually resulting in complete enclosure of the particle within a phagosome created by the plasma membrane of the cell. The limiting membrane of this phagocytic vacuole then fuses with the limiting membrane of a lysosomal granule, resulting in discharge of the granules contents into the phagolysosome. †¢ (c) Ki lling or degradation of the ingested material The ultimate step in the elimination of infectious agents and necrotic cells is their killing and degradation within neutrophils and macrophages, which occur most efficiently after activation of the phagocytes Veteran interview EssayLaboratory evaluation †¢ Changes in peripheral white blood cell count Leukocytosis: Normally climbs to 15000 – 20000 Neutrophilia – bacterial infections Lymphocytosis – viral infections ( Infectious Mononucleosis , Mumps) Eosinophilia – allergic or parasitic infestation Leucopenia – Typhoid, virus, rickettsia Lymphocytosis and neutropenia in acute viral infections †¢ Examination of inflammatory infiltrate Changes in plasma proteins Characteristic high protein levels and high specific gravity Presence of acute inflammatory cells Elevated levels of acute phase reactants (C-reactive protein, 1 antitrypsin, Fibrinogen, Serum amyloid protein (SAA) and haptoglobin) †¢ CRP and SAA bind to microbial cell walls , act as opsonins and fix complement †¢ Fibrinogen causes erythrocytes to form rouleaux †¢ Prolonged production of these proteins results in secondary amyloidosis in chronic inflammation †¢ Elevated levels of CRP is a marker of increased risk of myocardial infarction in patients with coronary artery disease †¢ Increased erythrocyte sedimentation rate Biopsy and microscopic examination of tissue; Hyperemia, edema, neutrophil infiltration and fibrin Lymphatics in inflammation †¢ Much of the emphasis in the discussion of inflammation is on the reactions of blood vessels, but lymphatics also participate in the response. †¢ As is well known, the small amount of interstitial fluid formed normally is removed by lymphatic drainage. †¢ In inflammation, lymph flow is increased an d helps drain edema fluid from the extravascular space. †¢ Because the junctions of lymphatics are loose, lymphatic fluid eventually equilibrates with extravascular fluid. In addition to fluid, leukocytes and cell debris may also find their way into lymph. †¢ In severe inflammatory reactions, especially to microbes, the lymphatics may transport the offending agent. †¢ The lymphatics may become secondarily inflamed (lymphangitis), as may the draining lymph nodes (lymphadenitis). †¢ Inflamed lymph nodes are often enlarged, because of hyperplasia of the lymphoid follicles and increased numbers of lymphocytes and phagocytic cells lining the sinuses of the lymph nodes. This constellation of pathologic changes is termed reactive, or inflammatory, lymphadenitis †¢ For clinicians, the presence of red streaks near a skin wound is a telltale sign of an infection in the wound. †¢ This streaking follows the course of the lymphatic channels and is diagnostic of lymp hangitis; it may be accompanied by painful enlargement of the draining lymph nodes, indicating lymphadenitis. Sequelae of inflammation – The possible outcomes of acute inflammation are Resolution When the injury is limited or short-lived and when there has been no or minimal tissue damage, the usual outcome is restoration to histologic and functional normalcy. This involves the clearance of injurious stimuli, removal of chemical mediators and acute inflammatory cells, replacement of the injured cells, and eventually, the restoration of normal function of cells. Events in the resolution of inflammation. Phagocytes clear the fluid, leukocytes and dead tissue, and fluid and proteins are removed by lymphatic drainage. Organization Scarring or fibrosis Scarring or fibrosis results after substantial tissue destruction or when inflammation occurs in tissues that do not regenerate. Extensive fibrinous exudates may not be completely absorbed and are organized by ingrowth of connective tissue with resultant fibrosis. Abscess formation may occur in the setting of extensive neutrophilic infiltrates or in certain bacterial or fungal infections. Due to the extensive underlying tissue destruction, the nly outcome of abscess formation is scarring. Abscesses may form in some bacterial infections Progression to chronic inflammation- Progression to chronic inflammation may follow acute inflammation, although signs of chronic inflammation may be present at the onset of injury. Depending on the extent of the initial and ongoing tissue injury as well as the capacity of the affected tissues to regrow, chronic inflammation may be followed by regeneration of normal structure and function or may lead to scarring. Defects in Leukocyte Function Since leukocytes play a central role in host defense, it is not surprising that defects in leukocyte function, both acquired and inherited, lead to increased susceptibility to infections, which may be recurrent and life-threatening †¢ The most common causes of defective inflammation are bone marrow suppression caused by tumors and chemotherapy or radiation (resulting in decreased leukocyte numbers), and metabolic diseases such as diabetes (causing abnormal leukocyte functions). The genetic disorders, although individually rare, illustrate the importance of particular molecular pathways in the complex inflammatory response. Some of the better understood inherited diseases are the following: a. Defects in leukocyte adhesion. In leukocyte adhesion deficiency type 1 (LAD-1), defective synthesis of the CD18 ? subunit of the leukocyte integrins LFA-1 and Mac-1 leads to impaired leukocyte adhesion to and migration through endothelium, and defective phagocy tosis and generation of an oxidative burst. Leukocyte adhesion deficiency type 2 (LAD-2) is caused by a defect in fucose metabolism resulting in the absence of sialyl-Lewis X, the oligosaccharide on leukocytes that binds to selectins on activated endothelium. Its clinical manifestations are similar to but milder than those of LAD-1. b. Defects in microbicidal activity. An example is chronic granulomatous disease, a genetic deficiency in one of the several components of the phagocyte oxidase responsible for generating ROS. In these patients, engulfment of bacteria does not result in activation of oxygen-dependent killing mechanisms. . Defects in phagolysosome formation. One such disorder, Chediak-Higashi syndrome, is an autosomal recessive disease that results from disordered intracellular trafficking of organelles, ultimately impairing the fusion of lysosomes with phagosomes. ] d. Rare patients with defective host defenses have been shown to carry mutations in Toll-like receptor signaling pathways. |Clinical Examples of Leukoc yte-Induced Injury: Inflammatory Disorders | Disorders |Cells and Molecules Involved in Injury | |Acute | |Acute respiratory distress syndrome |Neutrophils | |Acute transplant rejection |Lymphocytes; antibodies and complement | |Asthma |Eosinophils; IgE antibodies | |Glomerulonephritis |Antibodies and complement; neutrophils, monocytes | |Septic shock |Cytokines | |Vasculitis |Antibodies and complement; neutrophils | |Chronic | |Arthritis |Lymphocytes, macrophages; antibodies | |Asthma |Eosinophils, other leukocytes; IgE antibodies | |Atherosclerosis |Macrophages; lymphocytes? | |Chronic transplant rejection |Lymphocytes; cytokines | |Pulmonary fibrosis |Macrophages; fibroblasts | |Defects in Leukocyte Function | |Disease |Defect | |Acquired |Bone marrow suppression: tumors, radiation, and |Production of leukocytes | |chemotherapy | | |Thermal injury, diabetes, malignancy, sepsis, |Chemotaxis | |immunodeficiencies | | |Hemodialysis, diabetes mellitus |Adhesion | |Leukemia, a nemia, sepsis, diabetes, neonates, |Phagocytosis and microbicidal activity | |malnutrition | | |Genetic | |Leukocyte adhesion deficiency 1 |? hain of CD11/CD18 integrins | |Leukocyte adhesion deficiency 2 |Fucosyl transferase required for synthesis of sialylated | | |oligosaccharide (receptor for selectins) | |Chronic granulomatous disease |Decreased oxidative burst | |  Ã‚  X-linked |NADPH oxidase (membrane component) | |  Ã‚  Autosomal recessive |NADPH oxidase (cytoplasmic components) | |Myeloperoxidase (MPO) deficiency |Absent MPO-H2O2 system | |Chediak-Higashi syndrome |Protein involved in organelle membrane docking and fusion | At the end of reading – try to answering these questions – if you can then you are thro if not go back and read 1. Define inflammation and discuss the causes of inflammation 2. List and explain the cardinal signs of inflammation 3. List and explain the stimuli for inflammation 4. Explain the vascular changes that occur during inflammation 5. Explain the cellular events during inflammation 6. Explain phagocytosis in detail 7. Describe with illustrations how the endothelium becomes leaky in acute inflammation? 8. Discuss the cells that are involved in inflammation 9. Explain in detail the adhesion receptors involved in adhesion and transmigration 10. Explain Diapedesis and chemotaxis 11. Explain the clinical genetic deficiencies due to phagocytosis 12. Explain the regulation of endothelial and leukocyte adhesion molecules 13. Briefly explain the outcomes of acute inflammation 14. Explain the various special macroscopic appearance of acute inflammation 15. Explain the harmful, beneficial and systemic effects of inflammation 16. Define Exudate, Transudate, Edema , Pus 17. Tabulate the differences between exudate and transudate 18. Write briefly on chemoattractants involved in chemotaxis during inflammation 19. Write briefly on inflammatory oedema 20. Explain the various Defects in Leukocyte Function 21. Tabulate and list the Clinical Examples of Leukocyte-Induced Injury: Inflammatory Disorders 22. Tabulate and list Defects in Leukocyte Function 23. Explain the role of lymphatics in inflammation 24. Explain the Clinical and Laboratory Evaluation of Acute Inflammation CAUTION ? If your incredible short-term memory got you through Organic Chemistry, it probably wont get you through Pathology, which is a quantum leap with more material. ? Find some way to organize the material to suit your learning style. ? Adopt active learning (read text books) ? Passive learning (others notes) is not recommended in the medical curriculum ? Don’t memorize without understanding ? MY NOTES ARE THERE TO GUIDE YOU BUT CERTAINLY NOT A SUBSTITUTE TO READING TEXTBOOK

Absurdism in Fences free essay sample

August Wilson was the most profound play writer chronicling the socio perspectives of African American society in the darker shades. â€Å"Fences† is August Wilson’s psychological struggle and disposition of the inner realities and sub conscious mind of the protagonists in their quest for identity in the white dominated society. Various dark realities of the life like despair; fear and loneliness felt by protagonists in the play reflect the feeling of absurdism. By using as marginal character as that of Troy, Wilson brought on the stage the frayed and troubled human lives of the blacks torn between what is true and what is expected of them. Some say that Fences is a tragedy but for some it is a common humor but it is a story of life filled with despair but eventually with the hope to take on the dignified life with security and happiness. The use of absurdism had been the most exciting and creative movements that led several play writers to make human beings know the real meaning and existence of life. We will write a custom essay sample on Absurdism in Fences or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page The real beginning of absurdism was made by the existentialist writers like Jean-Paul Sartre and Albert Camus along with others like Eugene Ionesco, James Joyce, Samuel Beckett, Jean Genet, Edward Albee, and Harold Pinter etc. with the concept of simple story and free images. Over and above, absurdism is recognized in the plays by fairly rationalized ideas of the world without any discipline or order. Language is a barrier for communication instead of a facilitator in this context. In other words, absurdism develops in characters an environment whereby there is no essence, where people lead away-secluded life and wander away thinking what to do. Through the dark phases of life, absurdism brings the people near to the characters and closer to oneself. The life of characters in Fences is bound by the socio and political structures of 1950s and move on to 1965. The story revolves around Tory Maxon who is a black garbage collector and it is his struggle with the society for fair treatment and his relationship with his family, which is the crux of the play. His frustration and rebellious mood creates barrier between him and his family, which sets the tone for absurdism in most of his actions. All through his life, disappointments loom large over his fate and the hardships that he has to face while supporting himself and his family. Troy had to spend his childhood days under the care of his poor, abusive and yet hardworking father and he had to leave his father’s house without any resources at his disposal. His poverty took him to jail, as he had to commit minor crimes to sustain his living. While behind bars, Troy learned to play baseball and soon was selected to play at the Negro League as the best home-run hitters. But when Troy reached maturity, Major Leagues disallowed the blacks to play for them and again Troy found himself incapable of supporting his family, but very soon he got a job at the sanitation department. Yet again the discriminatory practices of Union left him without promotion even after so many years of hard work and toil. Troy’s complaint against his Union and his fight for fair treatment is the most positive aspect in Troy’s behavior but as a human being, he unintentionally or under the circumstances and with his sweet-will made certain choices that turned out to be problematic for others. He would not allow Cory to attend college on football scholarship, as according to him there was no career in sports for boys. He would also not agree to Lyon’s decision on becoming a musician and with the habit of playing numbers by Rose. As said by Pereira, â€Å"Tory’s obduracy springs from his bitterness over the fact that, despite his brilliant talent, he could not play major league baseball, while lesser white players become stars†. (Pereira, 1995, pp. 37) Troy has always been considered as the most responsible man but he creates illusions around himself owing to his own distorted dreams. His character reflects absurdism in the scenes where he creates fictitious world of his own. The play begins with Troy entertaining Bono and Rose with an Epic story of his struggle with the personified death, or devil. He again creates fictitious story during the time he is denying his best friend Bono about his extra marital relation with Alberta. His created illusions also result in number of conflicts of minor nature with his family members. Rose, his wife opposes his self-created stories about himself and his versions about his past. Absurd sequence comes in the way Troy takes on hypocrisy. On one hand, Troy wants his family and loved ones live practical and responsible life and on the other hand, he himself enters into an extra marital affair.